With the contribution of:

Authors:

• Eugenio Dupré, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi" (National Wildlife Institute), Bologna, Italy.

• Luca Pedrotti, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi" (National Wildlife Institute), Bologna, Italy.

• Serena Arduino, Istituto Oikos, Varese, Italy.

This study draws extensively from the Italian Ungulate Database and recognizes the following scientists as essential contributors:

• Damiano Preatoni, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Unità di Analisi e Gestione della Biodiversità (State University of Insubria, Biology Department, Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit), Varese, Italy.

• Guido Tosi, Università degli Studi dell’Insubria, Dipartimento di Biologia Strutturale e Funzionale, Unità di Analisi e Gestione della Biodiversità (State University of Insubria, Biology Department, Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit), Varese, Italy.

• Silvano Toso, Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica "Alessandro Ghigi" (National Wildlife Institute), Bologna, Italy.

Project coordination:

• Serena Arduino, Istituto Oikos, Varese, Italy.

The study was funded by WWF International through the Large Herbivore Initiative (Project 9E0154.01).

The Italian Ungulate Database was funded by Ministero per le Politiche Agricole, Ministero dell’Ambiente – Servizio Conservazione della Natura and Federazione Italiana della Caccia (Ministry of Agricultural Policy, Ministry of Environment-Nature Conservation Service, and the Italian Hunting Federation).

This study presents the first comprehensive overview of the status of Alpine ibex in the Italian Alps, based on an extensive data collection usingaccording to a standardized methodology. For the first time, a thorough synthesis of information on the 69 Italian ibex colonies is available, covering traditional themes such as distribution, population size and growth rate, but also more specific issues such as the year and cause of origin, number of translocated ibexes, and type of management. Then, a comparison is made between actual current and potential ibex status and distribution, and implications for the conservation and management of the species are presenteddrawn. The potential situation (distribution, size, density) is estimated by applying from the application to the entire Italian Alps of two models that assess the quality of ibex habitat and predict ibex potential distribution at the local scale. The two models had already been conceptually developed from data on different ibex populations living in the Italian Alps (one for the siliceous substratum and one for the calcareous-limestone-dolomite substratum), but, for the purpose of this study , they were redesigned to reflect the coarser scale of the data available for the whole Italian Alps. Their application to the study area according to the underlying lithological substratum revealed the gap between current and potential status and contributed to identifying conservation and management issues and developing recommendations for future reintroduction programmes.

EU European Union

GP Game Park

GPNP Gran Paradiso National Park

INFS Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica (National Wildlife IInstitute)

LCIE Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe

LHI Large Herbivore Initiative

MU Management Unit

NP National Park

Several people contributed to this study, by both providing data and discussing various aspects of ibex conservation in the Italian Alps. The authors wish to thank them for their assistance.

The Alps are a unique mountain ecosystem threatened by increasing human pressure. In this region, conservation and development issues have usually been addressed at the local or national levelscale; rarely at the scale of the entire ecosystem. What seems to have been missing is a regional approach and an overall strategy for the Alps. Only recently have attempts been made to look at the whole Alpine range beyond national boundaries: one is the work of the Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe (LCIE); another is the ecoregional conservation initiative launched in 1999 by the WWF organizations of the Alps. These initiatives deserve to be encouraged and need to be integrated with others.

The LCIE sponsored a study of the large carnivores on of the Alps (bear, wolf, lynx) and was responsible for the development of action plans at European level. As part of the study, the current distribution and the areas suitable to large carnivores throughoutin the entire Alps were identified, as well as were potential corridors (Corsi et al. 1998). SA similar effort research for large herbivores hasdoes not yet exist been undertaken but it would nicely be extremely interestingcomplement the carnivore study.

This study on Alpine ibex is a first attempt to remedy the lack of information on herbivores, and this report describes its results for the entire Italian Alps. Far from being as comprehensive as that of the LCIE on large carnivores, it is a first step towards an Alpine-wide map; it does no’t cover the entire Alps but atl least – and for the first time – it covers the whole Italian portion.

The purpose of the study is to provide a tool that will assist in planning ibex management and distribution in the Italian Alps through an estimation of the extent of available habitat and a comparison of current and potential population. is to assess the present status of Alpine ibex in Italy, to develop a GIS-based model to evaluate the potential ibex winter distribution, to estimate the extent of available habitat, to compare current and potential population, and to provide a tool that will assist in planning ibex presence and management in the Italian Alps. To do so, two models that were already available (one for siliceous and one for calcareous substrata) were redesigned and extended to the entire Italian Alps.

The first model (predictive of the potential distribution of Alpine ibex over siliceous substratum in South Tyrol) was developed by the INFS (Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica, the Italian National Wildlife Institute) in cooperation with the public administration in of Bolzano (Pedrotti & Dupré 2000).

The second model (for the potential distribution of Alpine ibex on sedimentary/calcareous substratum) was also recently developed by Istituto Oikos as part of the feasibility study for the re-introduction of ibex in the south-western Dolomites (Paneveggio-Pale di S. Martino Natural Park and Dolomiti Bellunesi National Park) (Pedrotti et al. 2000).

These two substrata (siliceous-metamorphic and sedimentary-calcareous or limestone) represent the main and most common habitat types in the Alpine range. Both models are based on wintering areas because winter is considered the most critical period for ibex survival (Nievergelt 1966, Wiersema 1983a). Assessing the range and distribution of ibex potential wintering areas assists in predicting ibex potential range and driving sound management options. The validation of the two sub-models has proven excellent.

The two predictive models were applied to the whole Italian Alps, according to the different geological substrata, to compare actual current and potential ibex winter distribution. Potential wintering areas turned outwere determined to be much more extended and widely distributed than the actual ones: ibex populations are currently distributed over only about 5,000 km² only, which represents a small portion of the estimated suitable areas, and the present current distribution ranges of ibex populations are is still small limited in all management units.

However,It is important to state that the two original models were calibrated based on estimated from local data sets;, therefore, a simple extrapolation to the whole alpine range based on data sets collected aton a different scale may presented an intrinsic weakness that needed to be addressed and which is due to the fact that the covariates coefficients of the regression/classification functions were estimated from local spatial data sets acquired at a detailed map scale. Namely, the predictions of the models may have been give incorrect if the models had been applied to environmental data sets arranged (acquired) at a different scale level (i.e., less or more detailed), or may have been misleading if the characteristics of the spatial data set of the predictions area did not conform to the model ones.

For this reason,, for the purpose of this study the two original models were redesigned to yield more generally applicable results and, as a trade-off, they are less accurate when considered at at a small (i.e., small (i.e., more detailed)) scale.

Project goal:

To contribute to the conservation and management of ibex in the Alps through an assessment of their current status (chapter 3) and through the implementation of two models of potential distribution models in the Italian Alps (chapter 4). The synthesis of this information will help to identify the conservation and management priorities and define courses of action at a broad levellarge scale (chapter 5).

Project objectives:

1. To collect preliminary ibex data available in Italy (distribution, population size, type of management of ibex colonies) (paragraphs 3.2., 3.3 and 3.5).
2. To digitise and harmonize data into GIS as necessary (chapter 3 and 4).
3. To define the current status (population size evolution and future trend) of ibex in the Italian Alps (paragraphs 3.3 and 3.4).
4. To briefly analyse briefly the types of ibex management in the Italian Alps (paragraphs 3.4 and 3.5).
5. To briefly review briefly other similar studies or habitat suitability models (paragraph 4.1).
6. To assess the areas ecologically suitable to ibex (i.e., / the potential distribution of ibex) in the Italian Alps (at a broad regional scale) (chapter 4).
7. To evaluate whether new field surveys are needed (paragraph 4.5).
8. To draft guidelines/action plan for future conservation and management strategies (including reintroductions) of ibex populations and their important habitat in the Italian Alps, while ensuring the compatible development of human activities (chapter 5).

In particular, chapter 3 is devoted to a thorough overview of ibex status in the Italian Alps. It refers to all the existing ibex colonies and presents an overall census, archive and database with information on year and cause of colony their origin, colony size and growth rate, type of management, etc. This wealth of information had never before been compiled and synthesized for the entire Italian portion and is thus a new contribution.real novelty.

Chapter 4 focuses on the two redesigned models and their extension to the entire Italian Alps. Specific colony data refer only to the sample colonies used to develop the models and the relevant environmental variables. This colony database is more detailed than that described in chapter 3.

The project was undertaken in five different phases:

The project team is composed of the Istituto Nazionale per la Fauna Selvatica, the Biodiversity Analysis and Management Unit of the State University of Insubria, the non-profit organisation Istituto Oikos. Istituto Oikos was the project promoter and was responsible for project management; INFS and the State University of Insubria were responsible for the technical implementation and the scientific supervision.

Financing for the project was provided by the Large Herbivore Initiative (LHI) through WWF International.

Co-financing to outline status, distribution and population size of all ungulates distributed in the Italian Alps, and to compile a database for the Italian ungulates was provided by the Italian Ministry of Agricultural Policy, te, the Italian Ministry for Environment and Federazione Italiana della Caccia (FIdC, the main national hunting association).

Italy is a mountainous country with about 35% of its 300,000 km² lying above 2000m. The Italian Alps are arc-shaped and form the country’s northern border with France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia. They can be divided into three contiguous sections: 1) the Western western Alps running south from Aosta almost to the Gulf of Genoa; 2) the cCentral Alps stretching east from Aosta as far as the Brenner pass between Italy and Austria and . They includinge Italy’s highest mountains (Monte Cervino, 4,478m, and Monte Rosa, 4,634m ) and of course Mont Blanc, the highest peak of the entire Alps, (4,808 m), the highest peak of the entire Alps); and 3) the eEastern Alps extending east from beyond the BBrenner to Trieste, and includinge the Dolomites.

According to the boundaries of the Alpine Convention, tThe Italian Alps cover 45about ,39052,600 km², from the Imperia province to the west, to the province at of Trieste to the east (but the study area of this project is slightly smaller). Fourty-oneTwenty-eight percent of the Alpsir land area lies below 1000m;, 4739% lies between 1000 and 2000m, and the remaining 215% is found above 2000m (Fig. 2.1). The three sections, however, are not homogeneous. T: the Wwestern Alps (Piemonte and Valle d’Aosta regions) have higher peaks on average;. h Here, only 21% of the land area is below 1000m while 34% is above 2000m. I; in the cCentral Alps, 31% of the area lies below 1000m and 27% above 2000m. I; and in the Eastern eastern Alps, with the lowest average elevation, 32% is found below 1000m and only 15% above 2000m.

Ibex (Capra ibex) is distributed in Eurasia and Ethiopia in extremely fragmented areas corresponding to main mountain ranges.

Systematicss of Genus Capra is still controversial due to the different classification criteria in use. Capra ibex is subdivided into the following subspecies: Capra i. ibex, the Alpine ibex, distributed all over the Alps; C. i. sibirica, the Siberian ibex, present in Asia, the Russian Turkestan and Central central Siberia, Mongolia, Chinese Turkestan, Kashmir, a limited portion of Tibet, Chitral (Pakistan) and north-western Afghanistan; C. i. nubiana, the Nubian ibex, in Northern northern Egypt, Northnorth-eastern Sudan, Oman and some parts of Arabia, Israel and Jordan; C. i. walie, the Walie ibex, in the Semien massif; C. i. caucasica, in the Westernwestern Caucasian tur or Kuben tur (C. i. severtzovi, according to Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951). Recently a subdivision into 5 different species has been proposed, whereby and ibex populations presently occurring in northern Africa and Asia at present would be are usually treated as species distinct from Capra ibex (C. nubiana, C. sibirica, C. walie).

The ancestors of Genus Capra appeared between the end of Miocene and the beginning of Pliocene in Centralcentral-western Asia. Subsequently, according to Geist’s hypothesis (1985, 1987), four radiations originating in the Caucasus led from Ammotragus to the current species of Genus Capra. The most recent one led, during the Riss glaciation, led to today’s form of Capra ibex.

During the last glaciation (Riss) ibex ended up occupiedying their most extended ranges in the Alps and in other mountain areasranges, both in Alpine and non-Alpine countries: Spain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Austria, and Germany, Slovenia and Croatia up to Montenegro, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Romania. In Italy, past distribution reached the southern regions of Campania, Basilicata, Puglia and perhaps Sardinia. After the last ice age, ibex disappeared from the territories surrounding the Alps as soon as forests recovered their former, larger ranges, as showed by Neolithic findings in the upper high Po Rriver Bbasin.

After centuries of active extermination mainly due to intensive hunting, at the beginning of the XIX century only about 50-100 individuals of Alpine ibex survived in the Gran Paradiso massif (Valle d’Aosta region, Italy), due to the protection granted by the Royal Savoia Royal Family. Current ibex populations found inon the Alps are generally restricted to mountain areas above the tree line and are the result of both translocations from the original core of 100 individuals and natural colonisation. Re-introductions began at the end of the XIX century in the Swiss Alps, while in Italy they have been significant only in the last 20-30 years. These efforts, together with spontaneous migration from adjoining countries, have increased the number of areas inhabited by ibex, although the distribution is still discontinuous (Stüwe & Nievergelt 1991).

With current conservation and management practices the status of Alpine ibex is now considered safe and the species is listed as Lower Risk in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals.

Nowadays Alpine ibex is currently distributed throughoutall over the Alps due to re-introduction projects and natural population dispersion. Up to 1990, ibex reintroduction involved 175 different Alpine areas sites were interested by ibex immissionintroduction.! Ibex distribution starts in goes from tthe western Maritime Alps (Argentera massif) in the west and continues eastward to the Stirian limestone Alps in Austria and the eEastern Karawanken Alps on the border between Austria and Slovenia, covering all Alpine countries.

In 1993, At present, 31,000 ibex live in the Alps (Weber 1994, Pedrotti & Lovari 1999). Populations have been growing steadily since the 1960s, showing a mean annual growth rate between 3% and 6% (Table 2.1). About 15,000 ibex wereare estimated in Switzerland, 9700 in Italy, 3,200 in Austria, 3,300 in France, 250 in Slovenia and, and 220 in Germany (Shackleton 1997).

On the whole, 1455 different colonies are are estimated in the Alps (Giacometti 1991, Weber 1994).

There exist about 1456 colonies; Oof these, 50% of the individuals and 33% of the colonies are found in Switzerland. However, a wide gap between actual and potential distribution is still present in a large portion of the Alps, although even if with major differences among the Alpine countries. In Switzerland and Austria, for example, all suitable ibex habitat is considered occupied; in France the policy for ibex conservation is to continue re-introducing and restocking populations in appropriate habitat; in Germany only a limited portion of the country provides suitable ibex habitat and the species has a patchy and isolated distribution; and in Italy between 1985 and 2000 ibex increased from 5,100 to 13,000 individuals with and more than 50% (6,900) are found within protected areas.

In the Alps, ibex live mainly above the tree line, visiting lower elevations only in winter and spring. C (chamois, on the contrary, are more adaptable and range from submontane, mixed broadleaf woodlands around 500m or lessower in winter, to alpine areas in summer).

The most important ecological constraints to ibex spatial distribution are the elevation of the rocky montanemountain regions and the type of vegetation available type. Ibex occupy elevation ranges between 1,600 and 2,800m during winter and between 2,300 and 3,200m during summer. Rock cliffs and alpine meadows are most frequented throughout the year. Wintering areas, situated at intermediate elevation, are steep rugged south-exposed slopes (35°-45°) with grassy vegetation,, rugged and interspersed with rocks. Rock cliffs and alpine meadows are the land cover categories most frequented throughout the year. Rock vegetation and scree at the highest elevation are frequented exclusively during summer. Closed and continuous forests and glaciers interfere with ibex dispersal and slow down the colonization of new areas.

Alpine ibex’ and Alpine chamois’ ranges overlap substantially, but because the former tends to keep stay at higher altitudes, competition between them is unlikely to occur (Pfeffer & Settimo 1973, Schröder & Kofler 1984) (see also 2.8). Exceptions are ibex colonies introduced in atypical locations, wheren the two species completely overlap during winter (Kofler & Schröder 1985, 1990).

The ibex dispersion strategy when colonizing new areas is quite slow. Due to their ecological constraints, wWinter ranges characterize ibex as an insular species. are used in a "traditional" way, especially by females (Pedrotti 1995). When colonizing new areas, ibex dispersion strategy is quite slow. Their ecological constraints characterize ibex as an insular species. Ibex do not disperse as fast as like chamois or roe deer, but tend to remain in their traditional ranges while increasing their density (Gauthier et al. 1994). Indeed, only when a certain population density level is reached will new areas will new areas be colonized by young, pioneer individuals, but in winter these individuals stage actual annual migrations as they tend to return to their original wintering areas. Wintering areas are thus used in a "traditional" way, especially by females (Pedrotti 1995), and Ccolonization of new areas becomes permanent only one generation later, with the offspring of pioneer females. The whole process takes 10-15 years (Nievergelt 1966, Gauthier & Villaret 1990).

In Italy, at the national level, the Ministry of Agricultural Policy and the Ministry of Environment are responsible for the management and protection policies of wildlife. Regional and provincial services, as well as national and regional park agencies, are responsible for local management. In both cases (local administrations and protected areas) the advisory agency is the Italian National Wildlife Institute (INFS).

Several independent groups have a strong interests in Alpine ibex conservation, such as the European Ibex Group and the Friends of the Rhaetian Ibex.

Based on current hunting legislation, hunting activity is organized according to sub-provincial management units called "Comprensori Alpini" (Fig. 2.2). Each Any hunter is entitled to hunt in only one unit. Within each Comprensorio, hunting of wild ungulates is regulated according to annual harvest plans which specify the sex and age class of the individuals to be hunted. These plans are developed on the basis of the numerical evolution of the populations, determined through censuses (exhaustive or by sample areas).

The INFS has recently developed a data management system (Ungulate Database, Pedrotti & Dupré 2001) containing all the information available for hunting units and protected areas on:

• size and characteristics of area;
• size, structure and evolution of the ungulate populations from 1996 to 2000;
• management strategies adopted (harvest plans, actual harvest).

This is an unparalleled source for information on hunting practices in Italy.

The mMean extension of the 49 Comprensori in the western Italian Alps (Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta) is 41,710 ha (min 8,260 ha, max 96,050 ha, sd 23,235 ha); in the western-central Italian Alps (Lombardia, some provinces of Veneto) the mean extension of the 39 Comprensori is 38,360 ha (min 8,210, max 126,680, sd 24,960 ha). In the central-eastern Italian Alps (Trentino-Alto Adige, Veneto, Friuli-Venezia Giulia), instead, the administration of hunting activities mainly follows central European criteria and the basic management unit is the "Riserva Comunale di Diritto" (Community Reserve) open to the access of residents only. The extension of these 845 Community Reserves is a great deal smaller than that of the Comprensori, with a mean value of 2,970 ha (min 73 ha, max 29,365 ha, sd 3,000 ha).

The dDensity of ungulate hunters is higher in the central-eastern Alps and in the Province of Torino (Fig. 2.3). T: this is usually directly correlated to the size of hunted populations and of the hunting bag. In the eastern Alps and in some Comprensori of the Province of Brescia hunting of roe and red deer is also undertaken with hounds.

In Italy there exist Ddifferent types of areas in which hunting is not allowed exist in Italy, according to different pieces of legislation. The national legislation on protected areas (L. 394/91), for example, establishes National Parks and Regional Natural Parks; in the latter, any hunting activity is prohibited. , in accordance with national legislation. Exceptions are the Natural Parks of the Autonomous Provinces of Trento and Bolzano: here the 8 existing parks are here under a separate local hunting legislation and hunting takes place according to the different Community Reserves system as in the like in the other part of the remaining provinceial territory. By law hunting is also prohibited in state forests under both national and regional jurisdiction.

The Ungulate Database made it possible to compile a satisfying overview of the current distribution and status of Alpine chamois. Given that ibex and chamois ranges overlap (see 2.4), the information currently available on chamois distribution and abundance represents one key factor to take into account when developing a future strategy for the reintroduction of ibex on the Italian Alps.

The total chamois population in the Italian Alps is estimated around 123,000 individuals, with a mean density of 4.3 individuals/100 ha calculated on the total extension of the areas suitable to chamois (about 27,000 km²). About 19,500 individuals (or 16% of the entire Italian population) are found in 5 protected areas (the Maritime Alps and the Dolomiti Ampezzane Natural Parks, and the Gran Paradiso, Stelvio and Dolomiti Bellunesi National Parks). The largest population sizes are recorded infor the autonomous provinces of Trento and Bolzano and infor the Piemonte region, where 62% of all Italian chamois are found (37% only in the Trentino-Alto Adige region only).

Chamois densities (calculated only on the the extension of arareas suitable to chamois in each province) are generally higher in the Lecco, Bergamo, Trento and Bolzano provinces (5.5-8.6 chamois/100 ha). Overall highest densities (7.4-10 chamois/100 ha) are found in certain protected areas and private hunting preserves, probably due to a population "compression" consequent toresulting from hunting in adjacent areas and from to the fact that almost all landbase is suitable. The absolute highest densities are recorded for GPNP, Valle d’Aosta side (18 chamois/100 ha) and the Maritime Alps Natural Park (12 chamois/100 ha). Excluding the large national and natural parks, the highest densities are found in the central-eastern Alps (Fig. 2.5), especially in the Trento and Bolzano provinces (concentrating the highest densities in the western part of the Trentino region).

Chamois hunting is undertaken in almost all Italian Alps; only in the provinces of Savona, Como, Brescia, Verona, Gorizia and Trieste is is the species is not hunted. In the 1998-99 period 9,000-11,000 chamois were annually harvested (7-9% of the total population, 60% of which in the Trentino-Alto Adige region only). The total number of hunted chamois increased progressively between 1996 and 1999 (respectively 7,617, 8,817, 8,764 and 10,798 individuals harvested). In 1999 hHarvest was numerically significant in the following provinces (1999): Verbania (313 chamois), Torino (418), Sondrio (493), Belluno (768), Aosta (1,007), Trento (2,458) and Bolzano (4,147).

This chapter provides the first complete overview of the status of ibex in the Italian Alps and is based on the Ungulate Database. Local information has been available all along, but never before was it compiled onat such a llarge scale and with standardized methodology.

In 1998-2000 the status of ibex colonies in the Italian Alps was investigated by an extensive review of available literature and by direct contacts with provincial, regional and protected area agencies to gather all the information related to origin, distribution, abundance and evolution of their ibex populations. This information was subsequently refined, corrected and validated by direct contacts and data exchange with researchers and local experts (for a detailed list of the people involved please see AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgements).

The polygon data set was joined, by means of an ID colony number, to an Access database file containing all the information collected on each colony (Fig. 3.1). For each ibex colony the following data were collected:

• ID number;
• colony name;
• management unit;
• province(s);
• year of origin;
• origin (autochthonous, natural immigration, reintroduction);
• number of translocated individualsbexes;
• years, release sites and numbers of translocated individualsbexes;
• colony size (in 1984-85, 1994-95 and present);
• distribution (names of principal massifs and valleys in the colony’s range);
• notes on colony growth;
• type of management;
• person responsible for data supply and validation.

The Italian Alpine range was subdivided into 17 ibex management units (MUs) including areas with similar habitat characteristics (Fig. 3.2 and Table 3.1). Such units were defined to include populations which are relatively isolated and with minimum chance of exchange of individuals from one unit to the other. By "Ppopulation" is defined as meant a group of individuals of the same species that lives in a common territory and are that can be characterized by the same demographic parameters.

For this reason, MU boundaries were defined following natural boundaries like main valley bottoms and lowest alpine passes, which are deemed to be the main ecological barriers to ibex movements and thus the features limiting the populations’ ranges. The southernmost boundaries towards the Po plaine were set along the ideal line joining all the 1000m contour lines. Needless to say, given that ibex does not recognize administrative boundaries, in many cases ibex MUs should in many cases extend beyond national borders to include entire populations. This was not attempted as part of this study, but its obvious implications should be kept in mind.to consideration.

Several MUs currently contain ibex colonies completely separate and without exchanges of individuals among them. The MU’s shape and extension were defined on the basis of the species’ potential distribution to allow a comparison with actual distribution, and to support the assist the development of an overall strategy for ibex conservation and management. Average MU extension is 2,670 km²; min extension MU No. 2 "Alpi Marittime" with 930 km², max extension MU No. 15 "Dolomiti" with 6,100 km² (Table 3.1). Each MU was named according to the main mountain range included.

The following ancillary thematic coverages were harmonised and stored into a GIS project in Universal Transverse Mercatore (UTM, zone 32N) coordinates:

• management units (MU) for ibex populations
• province’s boundaries;
• hunting management units;
• protected areas;
• main roads;
• main rivers;
• Corine landcover;
• digital terrain model (250m resolution).

At present about 69 colonies are found in the Italian Alps ranging over 5,000 km² (Fig. 3.3). In some portions of the western and central Alps, distribution of populations has become rather continuous in the last ten years, thus making the identification of well-defined boundaries between colonies more difficult.

Reintroduction programmes started in the 1980s, except for translocation into the Maritime Alps Natural Park (the former Valdieri-Entracque Real Hunting Preserve) in 1921 and some pioneer attempts in the Valle d’Aosta region before the 1980s (see Annex).

In Italy, currentactual Alpine ibex distribution is still quite fragmented and far from meeting itsthe potentiall one. Ibex are present in all Alpine regions, from Friuli–Venezia Giulia to Piemonte, and in all Alpine Provinces (15) with the exception of Trieste, Gorizia, Varese, Biella and Imperia (probably lacking habitat suitable to ibex) (Fig. 3.4). The following figures provide evidence of the scattered ibex distribution: 70% of individuals (9,200) is found in three provinces only (Aosta, Torino and Sondrio); 43% (5,600) are found in three parks, namely the Gran Paradiso National ParkNP and Maritime Alps Natural Park in Piemonte and the Stelvio National Park in Lombardia; and 30% (4,000) are in the Gran Paradiso National Park alone. Furthermore, most of the newborn colonies are still characterized by low numbers and densities.

As already mentioned, about 13,000 ibex are currently found in the Italian Alps, divided among about 69 colonies. For a detailed description of of the distribution, origin, size and evolution of each colony see the Annex.

Overall, about 6,800 ibex, or 51% of the total, areis found within protected areas where hunting is prohibited (National and Natural Parks, State Forests).

Generally, larger populations are concentrated in six provinces: Cuneo, Torino, Vercelli, Aosta, Sondrio and Bolzano (Table 3.2). However, the single largest colonies are localized in (in brackets the province’s name): Gran Paradiso National Park, Lanzo Valleys (Torino and and Aosta), Stelvio National Park (Sondrio and and BBrescia), Maritime Alps Natural Park (Cuneo), Valtournanche (Aosta), Monzoni–Marmolada Massif (Trento and, Belluno), Pelline Valley, St. Marcel and Rhèemes Valleys (Aosta), Monte Rosa Massif (Aosta, Vercelli and, Verbania), Orobie Alps (Bergamo, Como and, Sondrio), Livigno territory (Sondrio), Palla Bianca Peak and Tessa Group (Bolzano) (Fig. 3.5).

A comparison between the central-western and the central-eastern Italian Alps shows that abundance is seven times higher in the former, outlining how current abundance distribution of ibex populations is unbalanced (the central-western Alps include Piemonte, Valle d’Aosta and Lombardia; the central-eastern Alps include Trentino–Alto Adige, Veneto and Friuli–Venezia Giulia).

A first rough analysis of suitable ibex wintering areas (Ungulate BatabaseDatabase) showed that they are wider in the central-western Alps than in the central-eastern Alps (2,390 km² vs. 2,050 km²); also ibex actual distribution and abundance are higher in the central-western Alps. Mean densityies, in relation to weighed to the extent of potential areas, isare 1.3 ibex/100 ha in central-western Alps (0.9 ibex/100 ha without the GPNP population) and 0.25 ibex/100 ha in central-eastern Alps. Mean densityies, in relation to weighed to the extent of potential wintering areas, isare 4.8 ibex/100 ha in central-western Alps (3.6 ibex/100 ha without GPNP population) and 0.8 ibex/100 ha in central-eastern Alps (Pedrotti et al. 2001) (Table 3.3). Highest population densities are found in the provinces of Aosta, Lecco and Vercelli (2.5-2.8 ibex/100 ha); however, Aosta mean density dropsfalls to 0.8 ibex/100 ha if GPNP is not considered. Torino and Bergamo reach densities between 1 and 2 ibex/100 ha. Pordenone, Sondrio, Udine and Cuneo haveare characterized by more than 0.5 ibex/100 ha, while the other provinces have less. are below this value.

A rough habitat suitability model developed in a previous work (Pedrotti et al. 2001) outlines ranges and distribution of potential ibex wintering areas. This model represents an extremely simplified version of reality and has to be considered at a large scale; however it contributes to a comparative overview of the present and potential situation for the whole Italian Alps. The model assesses winter potential ranges on the basis of the values of elevation, aspect and slope, and assesses global potential distribution assuming all un-forested areasareas not forested aboveover 2000m are suitable summer habitat. Considering the extent and distribution of potential wintering areas derived from the application of the model, it is possible to compute a "mean winter density" for each province as the ratio between current abundance and the extent (in km²) of potential winter areas.

Ibex population of the Gran Paradiso National Park has a winter density of 12.6 ibex/100 ha. The provinces of Vercelli, Torino and Aosta (except the GPNP population) show winter densities between 4 and 8 ibex/100 ha. Lecco, Pordenone, Sondrio, Bergamo, Udine and Cuneo have a density between 2 and 3 ibex/100 ha; Verbania and Brescia about 1 ibex/100 ha and Bolzano, Trento and Belluno between 0.5 and 1.

Without more rigorous predictive models based on objective data and sound statistical procedures, these results provide at least ainteresting orders of magnitude of reference for comparison with the actual situation.

Considering a precautionary density level in wintering areas of 7 ibex/100 ha, the Italian Alps could host at least 30,000 ibex, as opposed to the 13,000 currently present (43% of the potential), of which about 17,000 in the central-western Alps, and about 14,000 in the central-eastern Alps. Having used very conservative potential values, in the Valle d’Aosta region - due to the high actual population density of the GPNP – the difference between real and potential density is even positive. Vercelli, Torino, Sondrio, Lecco and Pordenone are the only provinces where current ibex density is as high as 40% of its the potential one or higherabove. In Cuneo, Bergamo and Udine ibex density values areis between 25% and 40% of its the ppotential ones, while and in the remaining provinces the density isvalues are between 5% and 12% of the potential ones.

Table 3.3 and Fig. 3.5 confirm how present distribution and abundance of Alpine ibex in Italy are still under below their potential values.

As shown in Table 3.4, the 17 ibex MUs were grouped to form three sections of the Italian Alps of comparable extension: the western Alps (MU 1-6) of 13,830 km², the central Alps (MU 7-13) of 16,480 km², and the eastern Alps (MU 14-17) of 15,080 km². In these three sectors, population density and size decrease from west to east: 9,300 ibex (71%) are estimated for the western Alps, 2,800 (21%) in the central Alps and 1,075 (8%) in the eastern Alps (Fig. 3.6). Summer density is respectively 1.6, 0.5 and 0.3 ibex/100 ha; winter density is 6.0, 1.7 and 0.8 ibex/100 ha. In the western sector, densities remain theare highest even when the historical colony of the GPNP is excluded (summer density: 1.0 ibex/100 ha; winter density: 4.3 ibex/100 ha).

The highest population sizesdensities (>1000 individuals) are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles – Cevedale". Populations above 500 individuals are also found in MUs "Alpi Marittime" and "Dolomiti". Smaller populations below 150 individuals are found in MUs "Alpi Lepontine", "Adamello", "Val Formazza", "Val Pusteria" and "Brenta".

There exist 69 colonies overall: 31 in the western sector, 26 in the central sector and 12 in the eastern sector. Of the 69 colonies, 2 are autochthonous, 36 were created through reintroductions and 31 originated from natural colonization. Of the colonies originated from natural recolonizsation, 11 came from Italian populations, 3 from French ones, 11 from Swiss ones and 6 from Austrian ones. In the western, central and eastern sectors, respectively 42%, 58% and 67% of colonies were created through reintroductions.

Summer density, calculated over the entire summer area available in each MU, varies from 0.1 to 5.8 ibex/100 ha. Not considering the GPNP, the highest summer densities are between 0.8 and 1.6 ibex/100 ha and are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Alpi Marittime", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Orobie".

Winter density, also calculated over the entire wintering area available in each MU, varies from 0.3 to 12.4 ibex/100 ha. The highest winter densities (3.2-12 ibex/100 ha) are found in MUs "Valli di Lanzo – Gran Paradiso – M.te Bianco", "Alpi Marittime", "Sx Aosta – M.te Rosa – Valle Anzasca" and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles - Cevedale".

The average population density per MU, calculated over the land area currently occupied by each colony, more accurately describes the present situation and varies between 1 and 7.3 ibex/100 ha (GPNP).

Table 3.4 – Ibex distribution and population size in the ibex management units of the Italian Alps (1998-2000). Density was estimated according to summer and winter potential ranges (km²) (see text) for further explanations). "Reintro" indicates the number of re-introduced colonies; "Den/distr" indicates the density calculated on omputed on the present distribution range.

Table 3.5 presents information similar to that ofin Table 3.4 (distribution, size and density of ibex colonies in MUs), but it is relative referred to the 1984-85. period. In that period thereFifteen years ago there were 42 colonies with a total of 6,300 ibex, of which over 60% belonged to the GPNP population. There were about 5,500 ibex (87%) in the western Alps, 700 (11%) in the central Alps and 130 (2%) in the eastern Alps. Not counting the GPNP colony, whose size has remained virtually unchanged, no MU had a population size higher than 600 individuals. Summer density varied from 0.1 to 1 ibex/100 ha, winter density from 0.1 to 5.8.

The average annual population growth rate between 1984-85 and 2000 was almost 10% (excluding the GPNP colony, whose size has been oscillatinges around the carrying capacity, with net annual growth near 0). Average annual net growth increased from west to east due to the different population densities and was 9%, 10% and 15% for the western, central and eastern Alps respectively. The annual net growth rate between 1984-85-85 and 2000 is significantly correlated to the population density calculated over the area actually occupied by each colony (Fig. 3.7). In all MUs growth rates range between 10% and 18%, except for MUs "Alpi Marittime" (2%) and "Alpi Retiche – Ortles - Cevedale" (6%), where density is higher (1.6 and 1.5 ibex/100 ha respectively, see Table 3.6).

During historical times ibex populations ranged over the whole Alps up to the 13° east longitude (the line joining Carinthia and Salzburg).

Numerous sources confirm an the great historical iinterest in ibex throughout history. In the Middle Ages ibex were hunted as desirable game and their abundance waswere an important source of food for the people who inhabited the Alpine valleys. Therapeutic power was ascribed to various ibex body parts since the Roman Empire. This subsequently led to the establishment in 1654-1668, by Prince Bishop Guidobald von Thun, of an "Ibex Pharmacopoeia" in the episcopal royal pharmacy of Salzburg. Hunters were required to deliver all the parts of hunted ibex to the pharmacy. The rarer the ibex became, the more valuable the business, and the prospective good profit drove many to poaching. The great value of their attributed to hornsits trophy, the large amount of meat and the supposed thaumaturgic properties of different parts of their its body determined the overexploitation of ibex populations and drove them ibex almost to extinction.

In spite of various attempts at ibex protection, farming and translocation (first in Tyrol in 1538 and then near Salzburg at the end of the XVII century), ibex progressively disappeared from the Alps during the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries. In Grisons (CH) tThe last ibex in Grisons (CH) were seen in 1650; they disappeared from the Bernese Alps between 1750 and 1800, and from Valais between 1800 and 1850. After centuries of active extermination, in the second half of the XIX century only one ibex population of 50-100 individuals survived on the Gran Paradiso Massif, western Italian Alps, due to the protection granted by the Savoia Royal Family.House.

HThe main reasons that drove ibex to the verge of extinction are hunting and the poaching of highly priced gamedrove ibex to the verge of extinction. Hunters took advantage of the ibex’ typical flight behaviour: in case of danger, instead of running long distances, ibex reach the nearest steep cliff, from the top of which they survey the surroundings. While this escape behaviour proves effective with natural enemies, it is rather ineffective with armed hunters. Thus, w, and with the onset and improvement of firearms, hunting became a serious threat to ibex conservation.

Only the Gran Paradiso population was spared the fate of extermination thanks to strict conservation measures. In 1821, when the future "mother colony" of all Alpine ibexes countedhad less than 100 individuals, the first protective measures were implementedput into place, followed in 1836 by the "Regie Patenti" that declared the ibex area a royal hunting preserve for King Vitctorio Emanuele II. In 1922, the last ibex refuge finally became the Gran Paradiso National Park.

The protection granted to ibex was the first step in for the conservation and restoration of the Alpine ibex population. Even though protection was granted for royal hunting purposes, it contributed to an increase in the size of the ibex population: in 1878, about 2000 ibexes lived in the hunting preserve, and they were about 4000 at the beginning of the XX century their number was about 4000. During the last century, with the exception of the minimum values reached during the two war periods, the abundance of GGran Paradiso population ranged between 3500 and 5000 individuals (Peracino & Bassano 1990).

The hunting limitation or prohibition and the creation of protected areas for ibex protection (Switzerland, 1920; France, 1963) facilitated the colonization of new areas and the increase of ibex populations size. In Switzerland, ibex hunting was prohibited in 1875, year of the first re-introduction programmes; here ibex is are currently strictly protected by federal legislation, and annual hunting quotas have been set since 1977 (Giacometti, in Shackleton 1997). In Liechtenstein, ibex they haves been protected since 1972. In France, they ibex wereas hunted between 1959 and 1976, when the Law on Nature Protection (10.7.76) introduced legal protection for the species (Roucher, in Shackleton 1997). In Germany, ibex they haves been fully protected since 1936, year of the first re-introduction. In Austria, ibex they is are legally hunted in few a small number of populations in the federal provinces of SStyria and Tyrol (Gossow & Zeiler, in Shackleton 1997). In Slovenia, selective hunting of ibex has been permitted since 1953.

In Italy, until 1969 ibex werecould be legally hunted until 1969 only in the Gran Paradiso National Park and in the Alpi Marittime Natural Park (formerly the Hunting Preserve of Valdieri-Entracque). The past hunting law (Legge 27 December 1977, n. 968) listed the species as It used to be listed as "par"particularly protected" species" according to, while the present law on hunting and wildlife conservation (Legge 157/92) lists it as the past hunting law (Legge 27 December 1977, n. 968), and is now considered "protected" species" according to . the present law on hunting and wildlife conservation (Legge 157/92). Since the coming into force of the regional regulations on taxidermic preparation and keeping possession of specimens (1977) there has been a moderate decrease in poaching and illegal trophy sale.

Ibex areis now listed as "lLower rRisk (1c)" species in the 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals (IUCN 1996) and is listed as "lLower rRisk" (least concern) in the Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan for the Caprinae (Shackleton & IUCN 1997). The species It is listed represented in Appendix III of the Bern Convention (ratified by the Italian government in August 1981) and in Appendix V of the EU Habitat Directive (animal and plant species of community interest whose taking in the wild and exploitation may be subject to management measures; Dir. 92/43/CEE). Appendix E of the Italian D.P.R. 8 September 1997, n. 357 (Regulation for the implementation of the directive 92/43/CEE for the conservation of natural and semi-natural habitat and wildlife and flora) lists ibex as a species whose exploitment in nature may need require strict management.

The second step in the conservation and restoration of the ibex populations was the numerous re-introduction programmes implemented in different portions of the Alps.

During the second half of the XIX century, the first attempts at re-introductions in Switzerland failed probably due to the poor performance of the hybrid ibexes individuals used: since pure-bred ibexindividuals were difficult to obtain from the GPNP (for release or breeding in enclosures), hybrids ofbetween domestic goats and captive ibex were produced and released into the wild. Although fertile, they gave birth too early (March-April) and were not well adapted to the harsh climate of the Alps (Uri Canton- CH, 1854; Welschtobel- CH, 1879; Ljubelj- SLO, 1898; Gressoney-I, end of XIX century).

In 1875, in its law on hunting and protection of wildlife, Switzerland prescribed the re-introduction of ibex in all suitable areas of the countryConfederation. In 1906, some pure-bred individuals ibexes were obtained from Gran Paradiso NP and established moved to in the Peter and Paul Game Park near St. Gallen (CH). Between 1906 and 1942, a basic breeding stock of at least 109 ibexesibex went from Gran Paradiso NP to Peter and Paul GP and (sincestarting in 1915) to Interlaken-Harder Game Park. They and their descendants are the ancestors of the extremely successful ibex populations now found in the Swiss Alps and in part of the Austrian Alps. From 1911 to 1938 the first mother colonies were founded with captive-bred individualsibexes. At the beginning theyibexes were released in ad hoc enclosures, sometimes with domestic goats. Between 12 and 51 individuals were released Withinwithin each re-introduction project., 12 to 51 individuals were released. The first colony was created in the area of the Graue Hoerner area, in the St. Gallen Alps (Giacometti 1991). In this period the largest and "historic" Swiss colonies were created: Augstmatthorn (1921-24), Piz Albris (1921-28) and Mont Pleureur (1928-29), as well as the colonies of Berchtensgaden (D, 1936-38), Bluhnbach (A, 1924) and Wildalpen (A, 1936). In the mean time (1921), the first Italian re-introduction was implemented in the former Royal Hunting Preserve of Valdieri Entracque. To obtain a viable population, 25 ibexesibex from the Gran Paradiso NP were released in six different stages over 13 years. After the second world war, translocations of captive-bred ibex continued in Austria: . Tthey started in 1951 in Tyrol (Plansee) and, continued in the other provinces until the 1970s in the other provinces, originatingand led to the creation of about 20 new colonies. S However, starting around 1950, most new re-introductions occurred with ibex from the original mother colonies, (especially Gran Paradiso, Mont Pleureur, Augsmathorn and Piz Albris). In the French Hautes High Alpes (Cerces Roche Colombe) a new colony was created in 1959-60 with ibexesibex coming from Mont Pleureur and the Dahlholzi Game Park (Bern), while in High Savoy 135 ibexesibex coming from Mont Pleureur were released in Upper Savoy from 1969 to 1976, all coming from Mont Pleureur. In the latter area there is evidence of natural recolonizsation from the adjacent Gran Paradiso in the period before the release.

Since 1911 ibex have been re-introduced in at least 175 different Alpine areas. Thus, while iIbex conservation has started with the implementation of "passive" protection measures, current abundance but the actual spread of populations was supported by severala great number of "active" translocation programmes aimed atfor the creatingon of new colonies.

In Italy, with the exception of the mother colony of the Gran Paradiso National Park and the historical population of the Alpi Marittime Natural Park, the status of Alpine ibex began improving in the 1960s. In that period the first translocations were undertaken mainly in Valle d’Aosta and in the Stelvio National Park. In the 1970s and especially the 1980s and 1990s, re-introduction programmes became more frequent as well asand natural colonization via immigration from Switzerland and Austria became more frequent (Peracino & Bassano 1986, Tosi et al. 1986; Table 3.7).

In recent years there have been newmore reintroductions of individuals coming from the Gran Paradiso NP and the Grisons Canton, based on feasibility studies and re-introduction plans that take into account environmental and demographic factors and, more recently, also genetic factors (Nascetti et al. 1990, Randi et al. 1990 and 1991, Stüwe et al. 1991, Tosi et al. 1991b). In the last 15 years, Italian ibex colonies have grown from 42 to 69, with 36 populations out of 69 (52%) originating from "man-made" translocations rather than (as opposed to natural recolonizsation) (Table 3.7). In Italy, the first translocation project took place in 1921 on the Argentera Massif (N° 1, Royal Hunting Preserve of Valdieri Entracque – Cuneo, MU "Alpi Marittime"), followed by 7 other ibex releases between 1949 and 1969: thus, 22% of the Italian translocation programmes took place before 1970, 78% (21) Seventy-eight percent (21) of the Italian translocation programmes started after 1970, and , and 58% (28.5) after 1980 alone.. In Italy, the first translocation project, as already mentioned, occurred in 1921 on the Argentera Massif (N° 1, Royal Hunting Preserve of Valdieri Entracque – Cuneo, MU "Alpi Marittime"), followed by 7 other ibex releases between 1949 and 1969, representing the remaining 22% which took place before 1970.

An uncertain number of ibexesibex coming from GPNP was released in Val Veny–Ferret (N° 26, Aosta, MU "V. Lanzo–Gran Paradiso–M. Bianco") in 1949, 1962-65 and 1975. There is evidence of natural immigration from Valais in the 1950s. In the Ayas Valley (N° 32, Aosta, MU "Sx Aosta–M. Rosa–V. Anzasca") some individuals were released iIn the 1960s, some individuals were released in Ayas Valley (N° 32, Aosta, MU "Sx Aosta–M. Rosa–V. Anzasca") and 36 individuals (ibexes coming from GPNP) were released again subsequently released in 1970-72. in that same area.

In the Gressoney Valley (N° 34, Aosta, MU "Sx Aosta–M. Rosa–V. Anzasca") the first translocations date back to the end of the XIX century; 16 more individuals coming from GPNP were then released in 1961-66 and there is evidence of a first attempt of colonization in 1963-67 in Valsesia (N° 36, Vercelli, MU "Sx Aosta–M. Rosa–V. Anzasca") in 1963-67. Here In Valsesia (N° 36, Vercelli, Mgmt Unit "Sx Aosta–M. Rosa–V. Anzasca") a more recent re-introduction programme brought 14 more ibexesibex from GPNP were released between 1974 and 1979.

In the Dolomites tThe first colony in the Dolomites was created in 1965 with 6 ibexesibex from the Grisons Canton. They were released near Sorapiss Mountain (N° 73, Belluno, MU "Dolomiti") from where some and part of them dispersed northwards to form a new colony (named N° 68 "Croda Rossa–Croda del Becco", N° 68, between Belluno and Bolzano). In 1975 four more individuals were taken there from Grisons. were translocated into the Dolomites.

In 1966, a translocation of 11 ibexesibex from GPNP were translocated into concerned the area of Macugnaga and Valle Anzasca (N° 37, Verbania, MU "Sx Aosta – M. Rosa – V. Anzasca"), at the same time as the beginning of the natural dispersion from Valais. In the 1967, the second Italian ibex colony on limestone settled in Stelvio National Park (N° 49, Sondrio, MU "Alpi Retiche – Ortles – Cevedale"). The first 17 individuals released in Stelvio National Park came from GPNP, and the other 12, released in 1968 in Val Zebrù, from GPNP and Grisons. From 1969 to 1978 an unknown number of ibexesibex was reintroduced in the Tournanche Valley (N° 31, Aosta, MU "Sx Aosta – M. Rosa – V. Anzasca").

Thirty-six ibex reintroduction operations have taken place in the Italian Alps overall; their frequency has increased gradually in the last 30 years. From the information available it is estimated that at least 755 ibex have been translocated since 1921, at an increasing rate: 12% of individuals was released between 1921 and 1969, 18% in the 1970s, 31% in the 1980s and 40% in 1990s (Table 3.8). The average number of individuals used in each reintroduction ranges between 23.0 and 12.1. LThe lowest figures value are recorded refers toin 1996-2000, when cases of Brucellosis were found in the GPNP population.

The evolution of Tthhe number of ibex colonies with time shows a pattern of linear growth starting in the 1960s. At the end of the 1950s, 8 colonies existed distributed only inon the central-western Alps only (Fig. 3.8). During the following 4 decades, the number of colonies present onin the Italian Alps has progressively increased to 23 (1970), 33 (1980), 52 (1990) and 69 (2000). In the 1960-2000 period, between 10 and 19 new colonies formed during each decade.

A remarkable increase in population size is reported for the last 20 years. An overall population of 4400 ibexesibex is estimated for the period 1975-77; 5100-5300 ibex are estimated for 1983-85, 7000 in 1990, and 9700 in 1995. This paper - although lacking missing some updated values - estimates the population of 2000 at more than 13000 ibex, distributed in a fragmented pattern all over the Italian Alps. From 1975 until present, the mean annual net growth rate is about 4.6%, but this rises to 6% considering the 1988-2000 period only (Table 3.9).